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Viser: Renewable and Efficient Electric Power Systems
Renewable and Efficient Electric Power Systems
Gilbert M. Masters og Kevin F. Hsu
(2024)
Sprog: Engelsk
John Wiley & Sons, Limited
999,00 kr.
2 stk på lager
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- 3. Udgave
- Hardback: 816 sider
- Udgiver: John Wiley & Sons, Limited (Januar 2024)
- Forfattere: Gilbert M. Masters og Kevin F. Hsu
- ISBN: 9781119847106
Comprehensive resource covering the fundamentals of the electricity system, including power plants, transmission, and distribution
Renewable and Efficient Electric Power Systems presents the fundamentals of electric systems, economics and markets, and an analysis of different renewable technologies applied to both centralized (grid-connected) and distributed systems. The two highly qualified authors discuss the science and engineering that underlies key renewable energy technologies, including solar and wind. The authors also cover important strategies for energy efficiency in buildings, campuses, and districts, and highlight key lessons for students and practitioners looking to incorporate these concepts into careers in project design, research, and other practical applications.
This new edition builds on the strong foundation of the earlier two editions, and expands upon them to link energy, carbon emissions, and sustainability calculations, showcasing an updated set of energy technologies and considers their integration with new digital technologies, linking energy systems to climate change and carbon emission impacts, and exploring issues of scaling systems in the real world. Sections discussing changing demand patterns from residential, commercial, and institutional buildings have also been expanded.
In Renewable and Efficient Electric Power Systems, readers can expect to find information on:
- Definitions of key electrical quantities, idealized voltage and current sources, electrical resistance, capacitance, magnetic circuits, and inductance
- Effective values of voltage and current, idealized components subjected to sinusoidal voltages, and the power triangle and power factor correction
- Polyphase synchronous generators, Carnot efficiency for heat engines, steam-cycle power plants, and combustion gas turbines
- Types of wind turbines, impact of tower height, maximum rotor efficiency, wind turbine generators, and speed control for maximum power
With its comprehensive and thorough treatment of the topic, Renewable and Efficient Electric Power Systems is an essential reference for students in academic courses related to energy, electricity, solar and wind power, and green buildings, along with practitioners who wish to refresh their understanding of renewable energy systems.
About the Authors xv 1 The US Electric Power Industry 1
1.1 Electromagnetism: The Technology Behind Electric Power 2
1.2 The Early Battle Between Edison and Westinghouse 3
1.3 The Regulatory Side of Electric Utilities 5
1.3.1 The Public Utility Holding Company Act of 1935 6
1.3.2 The Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act of 1978 7
1.3.3 Utilities and Nonutility Generators 8
1.3.4 Opening the Grid to NUGs 9
1.3.5 The Emergence of Competitive Markets 11
1.4 Electricity Infrastructure: The Grid 15
1.4.1 The North American Electricity Grid 17
1.4.2 Balancing Electricity Supply and Demand 18
1.4.3 Grid Stability 23
1.4.4 Industry Statistics 27
1.5 Electric Power Infrastructure: Generation 32
1.5.1 Basic Steam Power Plants 33
1.5.2 Coal-Fired Steam Power Plants 34
1.5.3 Gas Turbines 38
1.5.4 Combined-Cycle Power Plants 39
1.5.5 Integrated Gasification Combined-Cycle Power Plants (IGCC) 40
1.5.6 Nuclear Power 42
1.6 Financial Aspects of Conventional Power Plants 46
1.6.1 Annualized Fixed Costs 46
1.6.2 The Levelized Cost of Energy (LCOE) 48
1.6.3 Screening Curves 51
1.6.4 Load Duration Curves 52
1.6.5 Including the Impact of Carbon Costs and Other Externalities 56
1.7 Summary 58 Problems 58 References 63 2 Basic Electric and Magnetic Circuits 69
2.1 Introduction to Electric Circuits 69
2.2 Definitions of Key Electrical Quantities 70
2.2.1 Charge 70
2.2.2 Current 71
2.2.3 Kirchhoff''s Current Law 73
2.2.4 Voltage 74
2.2.5 Kirchhoff''s Voltage Law 75
2.2.6 Power 76
2.2.7 Energy 76
2.2.8 Summary of Principal Electrical Quantities 77
2.3 Idealized Voltage and Current Sources 77
2.3.1 Ideal Voltage Source 78
2.3.2 Ideal Current Source 79
2.4 Electrical Resistance 79
2.4.1 Ohm''s Law 79
2.4.2 Resistors in Series 80
2.4.3 Resistors in Parallel 81
2.4.4 The Voltage Divider 83
2.4.5 Wire Resistance 85
2.5 Capacitance 90
2.6 Magnetic Circuits 93
2.6.1 Electromagnetism 93
2.6.2 Magnetic Circuits 94
2.7 Inductance 98
2.7.1 Physics of Inductors 98
2.7.2 Circuit Relationships for Inductors 100
2.8 Transformers 104
2.8.1 Ideal Transformers 104
2.8.2 Magnetization Losses 108 Problems 112 3 Fundamentals of Electric Power 117
3.1 Effective Values of Voltage and Current 117
3.2 Idealized Components Subjected to Sinusoidal Voltages 121
3.2.1 Ideal Resistors 121
3.2.2 Idealized Capacitors 123
3.2.3 Idealized Inductors 126
3.2.4 Impedance 128
3.3 Power Factor 132
3.3.1 The Power Triangle 134
3.3.2 Power Factor Correction 135
3.4 Three-Wire, Single-Phase Residential Wiring 138
3.5 Three-Phase Systems 141
3.5.1 Balanced, Wye-Connected Systems 141
3.5.2 Delta-Connected, Three-Phase Systems 148
3.6 Synchronous Generators 149
3.6.1 The Rotating Magnetic Field 151
3.6.2 Phasor Model of a Synchronous Generator 153
3.7 Transmission and Distribution 155
3.7.1 Resistive Losses in T&D 156
3.7.2 Importance of Reactive Power Q in T&D Systems 159
3.7.3 Impacts of P and Q on Line Voltage Drop 161
3.8 Power Quality 164
3.8.1 Introduction to Harmonics 165
3.8.2 Total Harmonic Distortion 169
3.8.3 Harmonics and Overloaded Neutrals 169
3.8.4 Harmonics in Transformers 172
3.9 Power Electronics 173
3.9.1 AC-to-DC Conversion 173
3.9.2 DC-to-DC Conversions 176
3.9.3 DC-to-AC Inverters 182
3.10 Back-To-Back Voltage-Source Converter 184 Problems 185 References 192 4 The Solar Resource 193
4.1 The Solar Spectrum 193
4.2 The Earth''s Orbit 197
4.3 Altitude Angle of the Sun at Solar Noon 200
4.4 Solar Position at Any Time of Day 203
4.5 Sun Path Diagrams for Shading Analysis 207
4.6 Shading Analysis Using Shadow Diagrams 210
4.7 Solar Time and Civil (Clock) Time 213
4.8 Sunrise and Sunset 216
4.9 Clear-Sky Direct-Beam Radiation 219
4.10 Total Clear-Sky Insolation on a Collecting Surface 223
4.10.1 Direct Beam Radiation 223
4.10.2 Diffuse Radiation 225
4.10.3 Reflected Radiation 227
4.10.4 Tracking Systems 229
4.11 Monthly Clear-Sky Insolation 237
4.12 Solar Radiation Measurements 240
4.13 Solar Insolation Under Normal Skies 245
4.13.1 TMY Insolation on a Solar Collector 245
4.14 Average Monthly Insolation 248 Problems 256 References 261 5 Photovoltaic Materials and Electrical Characteristics 263
5.1 Introduction 263
5.2 Basic Semiconductor Physics 266
5.2.1 The Band-Gap Energy 267
5.2.2 Band-Gap Impact on PV Efficiency 271
5.2.3 The p-n Junction 274
5.2.4 The p-n Junction Diode 277
5.2.5 A Generic PV Cell 279
5.3 PV Materials 280
5.3.1 Crystalline Silicon 280
5.3.2 Amorphous Silicon 284
5.3.3 Gallium Arsenide 286
5.3.4 Cadmium Telluride 287
5.3.5 Copper Indium Gallium Selenide (CIGS) 288
5.3.6 Emerging PVs 289
5.4 Equivalent Circuits for PV Cells 290
5.4.1 The Simplest Equivalent Circuit 291
5.4.2 A More Accurate Equivalent Circuit for a PV Cell 294
5.5 From Cells to Modules to Arrays 298
5.5.1 From Cells to a Module 299
5.5.2 From Modules to Arrays 301
5.6 The PV I-V Curve Under Standard Test Conditions 302
5.7 Impacts of Temperature and Insolation on I-V Curves 305
5.8 Shading Impacts on I-V Curves 307
5.8.1 Physics of Shading 308
5.8.2 Bypass Diodes and Blocking Diodes for Shade Mitigation 312
5.9 Maximum Power Point Trackers 315
5.9.1 The Buck-Boost Converter 315
5.9.2 MPPT Controllers 319 Problems 322 References 328 6 Photovoltaic Systems 331
6.1 Introduction 331
6.2 Physical Components in a Behind-the-Meter, Grid-Connected System 331
6.2.1 Microinverters 334
6.2.2 Using Space Strategically: Securing Solar Panels with Racking and Mounting Systems 336
6.3 Predicting Performance 339
6.3.1 Non Temperature-Related PV Power Derating 340
6.3.2 Temperature-Related PV Derating 345
6.3.3 The "Peak-Hours" Approach to Estimate PV Performance 347
6.3.4 Normalized Energy Production Estimates 350
6.3.5 Capacity Factors for PV Grid-Connected Systems 352
6.3.6 Practical Design Considerations 353
6.3.7 Codes and Requirements 356
6.4 PV System Economics 357
6.4.1 Net Metering and Feed-in Tariffs 357
6.4.2 PV System Costs 359
6.4.3 Amortizing Costs 362
6.4.4 Cash Flow Analysis 367
6.4.5 Residential Rate Structures 369
6.4.6 Commercial and Industrial Rate Structures 372
6.4.7 Economics of PV Systems on Commercial Buildings 374
6.4.8 Power Purchase Agreements 375
6.4.9 Utility-Scale PVs 376
6.5 Summary of System Design for Solar PV on Buildings 378 Problems 380 References 386 7 Wind Power Systems 389
7.1 Historical Development of Wind Power 389
7.2 Wind Turbine Technology: Rotors 395
7.3 Wind Turbine Technology: Generators 398
7.3.1 Fixed-Speed Synchronous Generators 399
7.3.2 The Squirrel-Cage Induction Generator 400
7.3.3 The Doubly Fed Induction Generator 402
7.3.4 Variable-Speed Synchronous Generators 403
7.4 Power in the Wind 405
7.4.1 Temperature and Altitude Correction for Air Density 407
7.4.2 Impact of Tower Height 410
7.5 Wind Turbine Power Curves 413
7.5.1 The Betz Limit 413
7.5.2 Idealized Wind Turbine Power Curve 417
7.5.3 Real Power Curves 418
7.5.4 IEC Wind Turbine Classifications 422
7.5.5 Measuring the Wind 423
7.6 Average Power in the Wind 424
7.6.1 Discrete Wind Histogram 424
7.6.2 Wind Power Probability Density Functions 428
7.6.3 Weibull and Rayleigh Statistics 429
7.6.4 Average Power in the Wind with Rayleigh Statistics 431
7.6.5 Wind Power Maps and Classifications 433
7.7 Estimating Wind Turbine Energy Production 435
7.7.1 Wind Speed Cumulative Distribution Function 435
7.7.2 Using Real Power Curves with Weibull Statistics 439
7.7.3 A Simple Way to Estimate Capacity Factors 445
7.8 Wind Farms 450
7.8.1 Onshore Wind Power Potential 450
7.8.2 Curtailment and Transmission 458
7.8.3 Offshore Wind Farms 458
7.9 Wind Turbine Economics 465
7.9.1 Annualized Cost of Electricity from Wind Turbines 465
7.9.2 LCOE with MACRS and PTC 468
7.9.3 Debt and Equity Financing of Wind Energy Systems 473
7.10 Environmental Impacts of Wind Turbines 473 Problems 476 References 481 8 More Renewable Energy Systems for Electricity Generation 487
8.1 Introduction 487
8.2 Concentrating Solar-Thermal Power Systems 487
8.2.1 Carnot Efficiency for Heat Engines 488
8.2.2 Direct Normal Irradiance (DNI) 491
8.2.3 Condenser Cooling for CSP Systems 494
8.2.4 Thermal Energy Storage for CSP 495
8.2.5 Linear Parabolic Trough Systems 499
8.2.6 Solar Central Receiver Systems (Power Towers) 501
8.2.7 Linear Fresnel Reflectors (LFRs) 504
8.2.8 Solar Dish-Stirling (Dish/Engine) Power Systems 505
8.2.9 Summarizing CSP Technologies 509
8.3 Wave Energy Conversion 512
8.3.1 The Wave Energy Resource 512
1.1 Electromagnetism: The Technology Behind Electric Power 2
1.2 The Early Battle Between Edison and Westinghouse 3
1.3 The Regulatory Side of Electric Utilities 5
1.3.1 The Public Utility Holding Company Act of 1935 6
1.3.2 The Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act of 1978 7
1.3.3 Utilities and Nonutility Generators 8
1.3.4 Opening the Grid to NUGs 9
1.3.5 The Emergence of Competitive Markets 11
1.4 Electricity Infrastructure: The Grid 15
1.4.1 The North American Electricity Grid 17
1.4.2 Balancing Electricity Supply and Demand 18
1.4.3 Grid Stability 23
1.4.4 Industry Statistics 27
1.5 Electric Power Infrastructure: Generation 32
1.5.1 Basic Steam Power Plants 33
1.5.2 Coal-Fired Steam Power Plants 34
1.5.3 Gas Turbines 38
1.5.4 Combined-Cycle Power Plants 39
1.5.5 Integrated Gasification Combined-Cycle Power Plants (IGCC) 40
1.5.6 Nuclear Power 42
1.6 Financial Aspects of Conventional Power Plants 46
1.6.1 Annualized Fixed Costs 46
1.6.2 The Levelized Cost of Energy (LCOE) 48
1.6.3 Screening Curves 51
1.6.4 Load Duration Curves 52
1.6.5 Including the Impact of Carbon Costs and Other Externalities 56
1.7 Summary 58 Problems 58 References 63 2 Basic Electric and Magnetic Circuits 69
2.1 Introduction to Electric Circuits 69
2.2 Definitions of Key Electrical Quantities 70
2.2.1 Charge 70
2.2.2 Current 71
2.2.3 Kirchhoff''s Current Law 73
2.2.4 Voltage 74
2.2.5 Kirchhoff''s Voltage Law 75
2.2.6 Power 76
2.2.7 Energy 76
2.2.8 Summary of Principal Electrical Quantities 77
2.3 Idealized Voltage and Current Sources 77
2.3.1 Ideal Voltage Source 78
2.3.2 Ideal Current Source 79
2.4 Electrical Resistance 79
2.4.1 Ohm''s Law 79
2.4.2 Resistors in Series 80
2.4.3 Resistors in Parallel 81
2.4.4 The Voltage Divider 83
2.4.5 Wire Resistance 85
2.5 Capacitance 90
2.6 Magnetic Circuits 93
2.6.1 Electromagnetism 93
2.6.2 Magnetic Circuits 94
2.7 Inductance 98
2.7.1 Physics of Inductors 98
2.7.2 Circuit Relationships for Inductors 100
2.8 Transformers 104
2.8.1 Ideal Transformers 104
2.8.2 Magnetization Losses 108 Problems 112 3 Fundamentals of Electric Power 117
3.1 Effective Values of Voltage and Current 117
3.2 Idealized Components Subjected to Sinusoidal Voltages 121
3.2.1 Ideal Resistors 121
3.2.2 Idealized Capacitors 123
3.2.3 Idealized Inductors 126
3.2.4 Impedance 128
3.3 Power Factor 132
3.3.1 The Power Triangle 134
3.3.2 Power Factor Correction 135
3.4 Three-Wire, Single-Phase Residential Wiring 138
3.5 Three-Phase Systems 141
3.5.1 Balanced, Wye-Connected Systems 141
3.5.2 Delta-Connected, Three-Phase Systems 148
3.6 Synchronous Generators 149
3.6.1 The Rotating Magnetic Field 151
3.6.2 Phasor Model of a Synchronous Generator 153
3.7 Transmission and Distribution 155
3.7.1 Resistive Losses in T&D 156
3.7.2 Importance of Reactive Power Q in T&D Systems 159
3.7.3 Impacts of P and Q on Line Voltage Drop 161
3.8 Power Quality 164
3.8.1 Introduction to Harmonics 165
3.8.2 Total Harmonic Distortion 169
3.8.3 Harmonics and Overloaded Neutrals 169
3.8.4 Harmonics in Transformers 172
3.9 Power Electronics 173
3.9.1 AC-to-DC Conversion 173
3.9.2 DC-to-DC Conversions 176
3.9.3 DC-to-AC Inverters 182
3.10 Back-To-Back Voltage-Source Converter 184 Problems 185 References 192 4 The Solar Resource 193
4.1 The Solar Spectrum 193
4.2 The Earth''s Orbit 197
4.3 Altitude Angle of the Sun at Solar Noon 200
4.4 Solar Position at Any Time of Day 203
4.5 Sun Path Diagrams for Shading Analysis 207
4.6 Shading Analysis Using Shadow Diagrams 210
4.7 Solar Time and Civil (Clock) Time 213
4.8 Sunrise and Sunset 216
4.9 Clear-Sky Direct-Beam Radiation 219
4.10 Total Clear-Sky Insolation on a Collecting Surface 223
4.10.1 Direct Beam Radiation 223
4.10.2 Diffuse Radiation 225
4.10.3 Reflected Radiation 227
4.10.4 Tracking Systems 229
4.11 Monthly Clear-Sky Insolation 237
4.12 Solar Radiation Measurements 240
4.13 Solar Insolation Under Normal Skies 245
4.13.1 TMY Insolation on a Solar Collector 245
4.14 Average Monthly Insolation 248 Problems 256 References 261 5 Photovoltaic Materials and Electrical Characteristics 263
5.1 Introduction 263
5.2 Basic Semiconductor Physics 266
5.2.1 The Band-Gap Energy 267
5.2.2 Band-Gap Impact on PV Efficiency 271
5.2.3 The p-n Junction 274
5.2.4 The p-n Junction Diode 277
5.2.5 A Generic PV Cell 279
5.3 PV Materials 280
5.3.1 Crystalline Silicon 280
5.3.2 Amorphous Silicon 284
5.3.3 Gallium Arsenide 286
5.3.4 Cadmium Telluride 287
5.3.5 Copper Indium Gallium Selenide (CIGS) 288
5.3.6 Emerging PVs 289
5.4 Equivalent Circuits for PV Cells 290
5.4.1 The Simplest Equivalent Circuit 291
5.4.2 A More Accurate Equivalent Circuit for a PV Cell 294
5.5 From Cells to Modules to Arrays 298
5.5.1 From Cells to a Module 299
5.5.2 From Modules to Arrays 301
5.6 The PV I-V Curve Under Standard Test Conditions 302
5.7 Impacts of Temperature and Insolation on I-V Curves 305
5.8 Shading Impacts on I-V Curves 307
5.8.1 Physics of Shading 308
5.8.2 Bypass Diodes and Blocking Diodes for Shade Mitigation 312
5.9 Maximum Power Point Trackers 315
5.9.1 The Buck-Boost Converter 315
5.9.2 MPPT Controllers 319 Problems 322 References 328 6 Photovoltaic Systems 331
6.1 Introduction 331
6.2 Physical Components in a Behind-the-Meter, Grid-Connected System 331
6.2.1 Microinverters 334
6.2.2 Using Space Strategically: Securing Solar Panels with Racking and Mounting Systems 336
6.3 Predicting Performance 339
6.3.1 Non Temperature-Related PV Power Derating 340
6.3.2 Temperature-Related PV Derating 345
6.3.3 The "Peak-Hours" Approach to Estimate PV Performance 347
6.3.4 Normalized Energy Production Estimates 350
6.3.5 Capacity Factors for PV Grid-Connected Systems 352
6.3.6 Practical Design Considerations 353
6.3.7 Codes and Requirements 356
6.4 PV System Economics 357
6.4.1 Net Metering and Feed-in Tariffs 357
6.4.2 PV System Costs 359
6.4.3 Amortizing Costs 362
6.4.4 Cash Flow Analysis 367
6.4.5 Residential Rate Structures 369
6.4.6 Commercial and Industrial Rate Structures 372
6.4.7 Economics of PV Systems on Commercial Buildings 374
6.4.8 Power Purchase Agreements 375
6.4.9 Utility-Scale PVs 376
6.5 Summary of System Design for Solar PV on Buildings 378 Problems 380 References 386 7 Wind Power Systems 389
7.1 Historical Development of Wind Power 389
7.2 Wind Turbine Technology: Rotors 395
7.3 Wind Turbine Technology: Generators 398
7.3.1 Fixed-Speed Synchronous Generators 399
7.3.2 The Squirrel-Cage Induction Generator 400
7.3.3 The Doubly Fed Induction Generator 402
7.3.4 Variable-Speed Synchronous Generators 403
7.4 Power in the Wind 405
7.4.1 Temperature and Altitude Correction for Air Density 407
7.4.2 Impact of Tower Height 410
7.5 Wind Turbine Power Curves 413
7.5.1 The Betz Limit 413
7.5.2 Idealized Wind Turbine Power Curve 417
7.5.3 Real Power Curves 418
7.5.4 IEC Wind Turbine Classifications 422
7.5.5 Measuring the Wind 423
7.6 Average Power in the Wind 424
7.6.1 Discrete Wind Histogram 424
7.6.2 Wind Power Probability Density Functions 428
7.6.3 Weibull and Rayleigh Statistics 429
7.6.4 Average Power in the Wind with Rayleigh Statistics 431
7.6.5 Wind Power Maps and Classifications 433
7.7 Estimating Wind Turbine Energy Production 435
7.7.1 Wind Speed Cumulative Distribution Function 435
7.7.2 Using Real Power Curves with Weibull Statistics 439
7.7.3 A Simple Way to Estimate Capacity Factors 445
7.8 Wind Farms 450
7.8.1 Onshore Wind Power Potential 450
7.8.2 Curtailment and Transmission 458
7.8.3 Offshore Wind Farms 458
7.9 Wind Turbine Economics 465
7.9.1 Annualized Cost of Electricity from Wind Turbines 465
7.9.2 LCOE with MACRS and PTC 468
7.9.3 Debt and Equity Financing of Wind Energy Systems 473
7.10 Environmental Impacts of Wind Turbines 473 Problems 476 References 481 8 More Renewable Energy Systems for Electricity Generation 487
8.1 Introduction 487
8.2 Concentrating Solar-Thermal Power Systems 487
8.2.1 Carnot Efficiency for Heat Engines 488
8.2.2 Direct Normal Irradiance (DNI) 491
8.2.3 Condenser Cooling for CSP Systems 494
8.2.4 Thermal Energy Storage for CSP 495
8.2.5 Linear Parabolic Trough Systems 499
8.2.6 Solar Central Receiver Systems (Power Towers) 501
8.2.7 Linear Fresnel Reflectors (LFRs) 504
8.2.8 Solar Dish-Stirling (Dish/Engine) Power Systems 505
8.2.9 Summarizing CSP Technologies 509
8.3 Wave Energy Conversion 512
8.3.1 The Wave Energy Resource 512
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