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FOREWORD x DEDICATION xi PREFACE xii LIST OF ACRONYMS xiv Introduction 1 Geographic Information: Science, Systems, and Society 1
1.1 Introduction: What Are GI Science and Systems, and Why Do They Matter? 1
1.2 Data, Information, Evidence, Knowledge, and Wisdom 9
1.3 GI Science and Systems 11
1.4 The Technology of Problem Solving 14
1.5 The Disciplinary Setting of GI Science and Systems (GISS) 16
1.6 GI Science and Spatial Thinking 30
1.7 GI Systems and Science in Society 31 Questions for Further Study 32 Further Reading 32 1 Principles 2 The Nature of Geographic Data 33
2.1 Introduction 33
2.2 The Fundamental Problem 34
2.3 Spatial Autocorrelation and Scale 37
2.4 Spatial Sampling 39
2.5 Sampling and VGI 42
2.6 Distance Decay 43
2.7 Measuring Distance Effects as Spatial Autocorrelation 48
2.8 Taming Geographic Monsters 51
2.9 Induction and Deduction and How It All Comes Together 53 Questions for Further Study 54 Further Reading 54 3 Representing Geography 55
3.1 Introduction 55
3.2 Digital Representation 57
3.3 Representation of What and for Whom? 58
3.4 The Fundamental Problem 61
3.5 Discrete Objects and Continuous Fields 62
3.6 Rasters and Vectors 66
3.7 The Paper Map 69
3.8 Generalization 71
3.9 Conclusion 76 Questions for Further Study 76 Further Reading 76 4 Georeferencing 77
4.1 Introduction 77
4.2 Place-Names and Points of Interest 80
4.3 Postal Addresses and Postal Codes 82
4.4 IP Addresses 84
4.5 Linear Referencing Systems 84
4.6 Cadasters and the U.S. Public Land Survey System 85
4.7 Measuring the Earth: Latitude and Longitude 86
4.8 Projections and Coordinates 88
4.9 Measuring Latitude, Longitude, and Elevation: GPS 94
4.10 Converting Georeferences 95
4.11 Geotagging and Mashups 96
4.12 Georegistration 96
4.13 Summary 98 Questions for Further Study 98 Further Reading 98 5 Uncertainty 99
5.1 Introduction 99
5.2 U1: Uncertainty in the Conception of Geographic Phenomena 101
5.3 U2: Further Uncertainty in the Representation of Geographic Phenomena 111
5.4 U3: Further Uncertainty in the Analysis of Geographic Phenomena 117
5.5 Consolidation 126 Questions for Further Study 127 Further Reading 127 2 Techniques 6 GI System Software 128
6.1 Introduction 128
6.2 The Evolution of GI System Software 129
6.3 Architecture of GI System Software 131
6.4 Building GI Software Systems 136
6.5 GI Software Vendors 137
6.6 Types of GI Systems 140
6.7 Conclusion 150 Questions for Further Study 151 Further Reading 151 7 Geographic Data Modeling 152
7.1 Introduction 152
7.2 GI Data Models 154
7.3 Example of a Water-Facility Object Data Model 168
7.4 Geographic Data Modeling in Practice 170 Questions for Further Study 172 Further Reading 172 8 Data Collection 173
8.1 Introduction 173
8.2 Primary Geographic Data Capture 175
8.3 Secondary Geographic Data Capture 181
8.4 Obtaining Data from External Sources (Data Transfer) 187
8.5 Capturing Attribute Data 190
8.6 Citizen-Centric Web-Based Data Collection 190
8.7 Managing a Data Collection Project 191 Questions for Further Study 193 Further Reading 193 9 Creating and Maintaining Geographic Databases 194
9.1 Introduction 194
9.2 Database Management Systems 195
9.3 Storing Data in DBMS Tables 198
9.4 SQL 201
9.5 Geographic Database Types and Functions 202
9.6 Geographic Database Design 205
9.7 Structuring Geographic Information 206
9.8 Editing and Data Maintenance 212
9.9 Multiuser Editing of Continuous Databases 213
9.10 Conclusion 214 Questions for Further Study 216 Further Reading 216 10 The GeoWeb 217
10.1 Introduction 217
10.2 Distributing the Data 222
10.3 The Mobile User 227
10.4 Distributing the Software: GI Services 233
10.5 Prospects 235 Questions for Further Study 236 Further Reading 236 3 Analysis 11 Cartography and Map Production 237
11.1 Introduction 237
11.2 Maps and Cartography 241
11.3 Principles of Map Design 246
11.4 Map Series 257
11.5 Applications 261
11.6 Conclusion 265 Questions for Further Study 265 Further Reading 265 12 Geovisualization 266
12.1 Introduction: Uses, Users, Messages, and Media 266
12.2 Geovisualization, Spatial Query, and User Interaction 268
12.3 Geovisualization and Transformation 274
12.4 Participation, Interaction, Augmentation, and Dynamic Representation 280
12.5 Consolidation 288 Questions for Further Study 289 Further Reading 289 13 Spatial Data Analysis 290
13.1 Introduction: What Is Spatial Analysis? 290
13.2 Analysis Based on Location 295
13.3 Analysis Based on Distance 304
13.4 Conclusion 317 Questions for Further Study 318 Further Reading 318 14 Spatial Analysis and Inference 319
14.1 The Purpose of Area-Based Analyses 319
14.2 Centrality 321
14.3 Analysis of Surfaces 324
14.4 Design 329
14.5 Hypothesis Testing 334
14.6 Conclusion 337 Questions for Further Study 338 Further Reading 338 15 Spatial Modeling with GI Systems 339
15.1 Introduction 339
15.2 Types of Models 343
15.3 Technology for Modeling 351
15.4 Multicriteria Methods 352
15.5 Accuracy and Validity: Testing the Model 354
15.6 Conclusion 356 Questions for Further Study 357 Further Reading 357 4 Policy, Management, and Action 16 Managing GI Systems 358
16.1 Introduction 359
16.2 Managing Risk 359
16.3 The Case for the GI System: ROI 360
16.4 The Process of Developing a Sustainable GI System 366
16.5 Sustaining a GI System--The People and Their Competences 378
16.6 Conclusions 380 Questions for Further Study 380 Further Reading 380 17 Information and Decision Making 381
17.1 Why We Need Information 381
17.2 Information as Infrastructure 386
17.3 Different Forms of GI 391
17.4 Open Data and Open Government 404
17.5 Example of an Information Infrastructure: The Military 406
17.6 Conclusions 409 Questions for Further Study 410 Further Reading 410 18 Navigating the Risks 411
18.1 Clashes Between Scientists and the Judiciary 412
18.2 Business Models for GI-Related Enterprises 412
18.3 Legal and Regulatory Constraints 414
18.4 Privacy and GI Systems 421
18.5 Public Trust, Ethics, and Coping with the Media 424
18.6 Partnerships, Up-Scaling Activities, and Risk Mitigation 426
18.7 Coping with Spatial Stupidity 432
18.8 Conclusions 433 Questions for Further Study 434 Further Reading 434 19 Epilog: GISS in the Service of Humanity 435
19.1 GISS, the Active Citizen, and Citizen Scientists 435
19.2 Context: Our Differentiated World 437
19.3 Context: Our Interdependent World 440
19.4 The Process 441
19.5 The Grand Challenges 443
19.6 Grand Challenges Whose Effects We Can Help to Ameliorate 445
19.7 Conclusions 459 Questions For Further Study 460 Further Reading 460 INDEX 461