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Contributors xxxi Abbreviations xlvii Notation lvii 1 Introduction 1 Thomas Ackermann 2 Preface: Wind Power Myths Debunked 7 Michael Milligan, Kevin Porter, Edgar DeMeo, Paul Denholm, Hannele Holttinen, Brendan Kirby, Nicholas Miller, Andrew Mills, Mark O''Malley, Matthew Schuerger and Lennart Söder
2.1 Can Grid Operators Deal with the Variability of Wind Power? 7
2.2 Does Wind Power Require Back-up Generation? 8
2.3 Aren''t More CO2 Emissions Generated with Wind Power in Power Systems than Without, Due to Back-up Requirements? 9
2.4 Does Wind Power Require Storage? 9
2.5 Isn''t the Existing Flexibility Already Fully Utilized? 12
2.6 How Often Does the Wind Stop Blowing Everywhere at the Same Time? 13
2.7 To What Extent can Wind Power Production be Predicted? 14
2.8 Is it Expensive to Integrate Wind? 15
2.9 Doesn''t Wind Power Production Require New Transmission, and won''t that Make Wind Expensive? 16
2.10 Does Wind Power have Capacity Credit? 16
2.11 Don''t Wind Power Plants have Low Capacity Factors? 17
2.12 Is Wind Power Generation Cost-competitive with Coal or Nuclear? 17
2.13 Is there a Limit to How Much Wind Generation Capacity can be Accommodated by the Grid? 18
2.14 Summary 19 Acknowledgment 20 References 20
Part A Theoretical Background 3 Historical Development and Current Status of Wind Power 23 Thomas Ackermann
3.1 Introduction 23
3.2 Historical Background 24
3.3 Current Status of Wind Power Worldwide 27
3.4 Status of Wind Turbine Technology 41
3.5 Conclusions 44 Acknowledgments 44 References 44 4 Wind Power in Power Systems: An Introduction 47 Lennart Söder and Thomas Ackermann
4.1 Introduction 47
4.2 Power System History 47
4.3 Current Status of Wind Power in Power Systems 48
4.4 Network Integration Issues for Wind Power 49
4.5 Basic Electrical Engineering 50
4.6 Characteristics of Wind Power Generation 53
4.7 Basic Integration Issues Related to Wind Power 61
4.8 Conclusions 68 Appendix Mechanical Equivalent to Power System Operation with Wind Power 68 A.1 Introduction 69 A.2 Active Power Balance 69 A.3 Synchronous Machines 69 A.4 Asynchronous Machines 69 A.5 Power Electronic Interfaces 70 A.6 Frequency Control 70 A.7 Wind Power 70 A.8 Reactive Power Balance 70 A.9 Asynchronous Machines 71 A.10 Capacitors 71 A.11 Synchronous Machines 71 A.12 Power Electronic Interfaces 71 References 72 5 Generators and Power Electronics for Wind Turbines 73 Anca D. Hansen
5.1 Introduction 73
5.2 State-of-the-Art Technologies 73
5.3 Generator Concepts 90
5.4 Power Electronic Concepts 96
5.5 Power Electronic Solutions in Wind Farms 100
5.6 Conclusions 102 References 102 6 Power System Impacts of Wind Power 105 Hannele Holttinen and Ritva Hirvonen
6.1 Introduction 105
6.2 Operation of the Power System 106
6.3 Wind Power Production and the Power System 110
6.4 Effects of Wind Energy on the Power System 118
6.5 Conclusions 128 References 129 7 The Value of Wind Power 131 Lennart Söder
7.1 Introduction 131
7.2 The Value of a Power Plant 131
7.3 The Value of Wind Power 132
7.4 The Market Value of Wind Power 141
7.5 Conclusions 154 References 155
Part B Technical Regulations and Grid Code Validation 8 Power Quality Standards for Wind Turbines 159 John Olav Tande
8.1 Introduction 159
8.2 Power Quality Characteristics of Wind Turbines 160
8.3 Impact on Voltage Quality 164
8.4 Discussion 171
8.5 Conclusion 172 References 172 9 Measurement of Electrical Characteristics 175 Fritz Santjer
9.1 Introduction 175
9.2 Power Quality Measurement Procedures 176
9.3 Specification 178
9.4 Conclusions 192 References 193 10 Practical Experience with Power Quality and Wind Power 195 Åke Larsson
10.1 Introduction 195
10.2 Voltage Variations 195
10.3 Flicker 197
10.4 Harmonics 203
10.5 Transients 204
10.6 Frequency 206
10.7 Conclusions 207 References 208 11 Technical Regulations for the Interconnection of Wind Power Plants to the Power System 209 Julija Matevosyan, Sigrid M. Bolik and Thomas Ackermann
11.1 Introduction 209
11.2 Overview of Technical Regulations 209
11.3 Comparison of Technical Interconnection Regulations 218
11.4 New Interconnection Requirements at Wind Plant Level 233
11.5 Interconnection Practice 237
11.6 Conclusions 238 References 238 12 Performance Validation and Certification for Grid Codes 241 Martin Schellschmidt, Stephan Adloff and Markus Fischer
12.1 Introduction 241
12.2 History of the Certification Process 242
12.3 Steps of the Unit Certification Process 244
12.4 Steps in the Plant Certification Process 250
12.5 Experience with the Certification Process in Germany 252
12.6 Performance Validation in Canada and Spain 254
12.7 Conclusions 258 References 258
Part C Wind Power Plant and Transmission Issues 13 Electrical Design of a Wind Power Plant 263 Nicholas Miller, Reigh Walling and Richard Piwko
13.1 Introduction 263
13.2 Wind Plant Collection System Design Objectives 263
13.3 Wind Plant Performance Requirements 265
13.4 Economic Evaluation Factors 266
13.5 Collection System Electrical Design 270
13.6 Plant Control and Communication 281 References 292 14 Transmission Systems for Offshore Wind Power Plants and Operation Planning Strategies for Offshore Power Systems 293 Thomas Ackermann, Antje Orths and Krzysztof Rudion
14.1 Introduction 293
14.2 General Electrical Aspects 297
14.3 Transmission System to Shore 301
14.4 From a Cluster Approach to Offshore Transmission Grid: The Kriegers Flak Project 312
14.5 Offshore Grid Systems 312
14.6 New System Solutions for Offshore Wind Power Plants 320
14.7 Alternative Transmission Solutions 322
14.8 Conclusions 322 References 323 15 New Cable Systems for Offshore Wind Power Plants 329 Heinrich Brakelmann and Jan Brüggmann
15.1 Introduction 329
15.2 Technical Background 329
15.3 Power Transmission with Bipolar HVAC Cable Systems 331
15.4 Voltage Definitions and Transformer Groups 332
15.5 Submarine Cable Connections 334
15.6 Examples 337
15.7 HVAC Bipolar Land Cable Systems 340
15.8 Summary 343 References 343 16 New Control Concept for Offshore Wind Power Plants: Constant-Speed Turbines on a Grid with Variable Frequency 345 Eckehard Tröster
16.1 Introduction 345
16.2 Model 346
16.3 Power Limitation 347
16.4 The Park-Variable Concept 347
16.5 Calculating the Energy Yield 353
16.6 Results 354
16.7 Conclusion 358 References 359
Part D International Studies 17 Overview of Integration Studies - Methodologies and Results 363 Hannele Holttinen
17.1 Introduction 363
17.2 Wind Integration Study Set-up and Penetration Level of Wind Power 364
17.3 Methodologies for Wind Integration Studies 366
17.4 Results from Integration Studies 373
17.5 Recommendations 382
17.6 Conclusions and Future Work 383 References 384 18 Two Reference Studies on European Transmission for Wind Integration: TradeWind and EWIS 387 Frans Van Hulle
18.1 Introduction 387
18.2 TradeWind 390
18.3 The European Wind Integration Study EWIS 399
18.4 Future Transmission Needs in Europe from the Studies 408
18.5 Concluding Remarks 410 Acknowledgments 411 References 411 19 Transmission Planning for Wind Energy in the USA: Status and Prospects 413 J. Charles Smith, Dale Osborn, Richard Piwko, Robert Zavadil, Brian Parsons, Lynn Coles, David Hawkins, Warren Lasher and Bradley Nickell
19.1 Introduction 413
19.2 Transmission Planning for Energy Resources 414
19.3 Regional Planning Efforts: Status and Prospects 417
19.4 National Transmission Policy 431
19.5 Summary and Conclusions 435 Acknowledgments 436 References 436 20 Wind Power in Areas with Limited Transmission Capacity 439 Julija Matevosyan
20.1 Introduction 439
20.2 Transmission Limits 440
20.3 Transmission Capacity: Methods of Determination 445
20.4 Measures to Increase Transmission Capacity 447
20.5 Impact of Wind Generation on Available Transmission Capacity 450
20.6 Alternatives to Grid Reinforcement for the Integration of Wind Power 452
20.7 Conclusions 462 References 462 21 Wind Power and Storage 465 Aidan Tuohy and Mark O''Malley
21.1 Introduction 465
21.2 Storage Technologies 465
21.3 Storage for Wind Integration 468
21.4 Studies on Operation of Storage in Systems with High Wind Penetration 473
21.5 Discussion 483
21.6 Conclusions 485 References 485 22 Economic Aspects of Wind Power in Power