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List of Contributors xvii Series Preface xxi Preface xxiii 1 Sources of Chitin and Chitosan and their Isolation 1 Leen Bastiaens, Lise Soetemans, Els D''Hondt, and Kathy Elst
1.1 Chitin and Chitosan 2
1.1.1 Chemical Structure 2
1.1.2 Different Crystalline Forms of Chitin 2
1.2 Sources of Chitin and Chitosan 5
1.2.1 Sources of Chitin 5
1.2.2 Sources for Chitosan 10
1.3 Isolation of Chitin 11
1.3.1 Technology Principles 11
1.3.2 Isolation of Chitin from Crustaceans 13
1.3.3 Isolation of Chitin from Insects 16
1.3.4 Isolation of Chitin from Other Biomass Types 16
1.4 Production of Chitosan 19
1.4.1 Conversion of Chitin to Chitosan 19
1.4.2 Chitosan Extracted from Fungi 24
1.5 Towards Commercial Applications 25
1.6 Outlook 28 References 28 2 Methods of Isolating Chitin from Sponges (Porifera) 35 Sonia zóltowska, Christine Klinger, Iaroslav Petrenko, Marcin Wysokowski, Yvonne Joseph, Teofil Jesionowski, and Hermann Ehrlich 2.1 Introduction 35
2.2 Brief Overview of Classical Methods of Isolating Chitin from Invertebrates 38
2.3 The Modern Approach to Chitin Isolation from Sponges 40
2.3.1 Methods of Isolating Chitin from Glass Sponges (Hexactinellida) 41
2.3.2 Methods of Isolating Chitin from Demosponges (Demospongiae) 43
2.4 Prospective Applications of Poriferan Chitin 49
2.4.1 Poriferan Chitin and Modern Bioinspired Materials Science 49
2.4.2 Chitinous 3D Scaffolds of Sponge Origin for Tissue Engineering 51
2.5 Outlook 54 Acknowledgment 54 References 54 3 Physicochemical Properties of Chitosan and its Degradation Products 61 Karolina GzyraJagiela, Bo zenna P eczek, Maria Wi sniewskaWrona, and Natalia Gutowska
3.1 Physicochemical Properties of Chitosan 62
3.1.1 Determination of Molar Mass 62
3.1.2 Determination of the Deacetylation Degree 67
3.1.3 Determination of Dynamic Viscosity 70
3.1.4 Determination of Nitrogen 70
3.1.5 Determination of Ash Content 71
3.1.6 Determination of Heavy Metal Content 71
3.1.7 Determination of Water Retention Value (WRV) 72
3.1.8 Determination of Solubility in Hydrochloric Acid 72
3.1.9 Determination of Water Content 72
3.1.10 Determination of Protein Content 73
3.1.11 Quantitative Determination of Chitosan by Ninhydrin 73
3.2 Products of Degradation and their Application 74
3.3 Outlook 77 References 77 4 New Developments in the Analysis of Partially Acetylated Chitosan Polymers and Oligomers 81 Stefan CordLandwehr, Anna Niehues, Jasper Wattjes, and Bruno M. Moerschbacher
4.1 Introduction 82
4.2 Chitosan Oligomers 83
4.2.1 Degree of Polymerisation (DP), Fraction and Pattern of Acetylation (FA and PA) 83
4.3 Chitosan Polymers 86
4.3.1 Molecular Weight (MW) / Degree of Polymerisation (DP) and its Dispersity ( Ã? MW / Ã? DP) 86
4.3.2 Fraction of Acetylation (FA) and its Dispersity ( Ã? FA) 87
4.3.3 Pattern of Acetylation (PA) 89
4.4 Outlook 91 References 92 5 ChitosanBased Hydrogels 97 Zhengke Wang, Ling Yang, and Wen Fang
5.1 Introduction 97
5.2 ChitosanBased Multilayered Hydrogels 98
5.2.1 Periodic Precipitation 99
5.2.2 Alternating Process 100
5.2.3 Induced by Electrical Signals 100
5.2.4 LayerbyLayer (LbL) Assembly 101
5.2.5 Sequential Curing 101
5.3 Chitin/Chitosan Physical Hydrogels Based on Alkali/Urea Solvent System 103
5.3.1 Chitin Hydrogels Based on Alkali/Urea Solvent System 104
5.3.2 Chitosan Hydrogels Based on Alkali/Urea Solvent System 104
5.4 ChitosanBased Injectable Hydrogels 108
5.4.1 Physical Association Networks 108
5.4.2 Chemical Association Networks 110
5.4.3 DoubleNetwork Hydrogels 116
5.5 ChitosanBased SelfHealing Hydrogels 119
5.5.1 Physical Interactions 119
5.5.2 Dynamic Chemical Bonds 121
5.6 ChitosanBased Shape Memory Hydrogels 125
5.6.1 Water/SolventTriggered Shape Recovery 126
5.6.2 pHtriggered Shape Recovery 126
5.6.3 Ultrasound Triggered Shape Recovery 126
5.6.4 SelfActuated Shape Memory Hydrogels 127
5.6.5 ChitosanBased Hydrogels with Triple Shape Memory Effect 127
5.7 Superabsorbent ChitosanBased Hydrogels 131
5.7.1 CrossLinked ChitosanBased Hydrogels 132
5.7.2 Hydrogels by Graft Copolymerization 133
5.7.3 ChitosanBased Composite Hydrogels 134
5.7.4 Pure ChitosanBased Materials 135
5.8 Outlook 136 References 136 6 Beneficial Health Effects of Chitin and Chitosan 145 Liyou Dong, Harry J. Wichers, and Coen Govers
6.1 Immunomodulatory Effects of Chitin and Chitosan as Demonstrated with In Vitro Studies 146
6.2 Beneficial Health Effects Mediated by Chitin and Chitosan as Demonstrated with Animal Studies 149
6.2.1 Immune Modulation 149
6.2.2 AntiPathogenic Effects 155
6.2.3 AntiTumour Effects 157
6.3 Beneficial Health Effects Mediated by Chitin and Chitosan as Demonstrated with Clinical Trials 158
6.3.1 Cholesterol Reduction and CVD Preventive Effects 158
6.3.2 Other Health Effects 160
6.4 Requirements to forward the Field of Study Towards the Beneficial Health Effects of Chitin and Chitosan 163
6.5 Outlook 164 Acknowledgement 164 References 164 7 Antimicrobial Properties of Chitin and Chitosan 169 Magdalena Kucharska, Monika Sikora, Kinga BrzozaMalczewska, and Monika Owczarek
7.1 Microbiological Activity of Chitosan - The Mechanism of its Antibacterial and Antifungal Activity 169
7.2 The use of Chitin/Chitosan''s Microbiological Activity in Medicine and Pharmacy 171
7.3 Microbiological Activity of Chitosan in the Food Industry 174
7.4 Microbiological Activity of Chitosan in Paper and Textile Industries 176
7.5 Microbiological Activity of Chitosan in Agriculture 177
7.6 Outlook 181 References 181 8 Enzymes for Modification of Chitin and Chitosan 189 Gustav VaajeKolstad, Tina Rise Tuveng, Sophanit Mekasha, and Vincent G.H. Eijsink
8.1 CAZymes in Chitin Degradation and Modification 190
8.1.1 Chitinases 191
8.1.2 β Nacetylhexosaminidases 195
8.1.3 Exo βglucosaminidases 195
8.1.4 Chitosanases 197
8.1.5 Lytic Polysaccharide Monooxygenases 199
8.1.6 Carbohydrate Esterases 200
8.1.7 CarbohydrateBinding Modules 204
8.2 Modular Diversity in Chitinases, Chitosanases and LPMOs 204
8.3 Biological Roles of ChitinActive Enzymes 205
8.4 Microbial Degradation and Utilisation of Chitin 208
8.4.1 Chitin Degradation by Serratia marcescens 209
8.4.2 Chitin Degradation by Bacteria in the Bacteroidetes Phylum 211
8.4.3 Chitin Degradation by Thermococcus Kodakarensis 211
8.4.4 Chitin Degradation by Fungi 212
8.5 Biotechnological Perspectives 213
8.6 Biorefining of ChitinRich Biomass 214
8.7 Outlook 216 References 216 9 Chitin and Chitosan as Sources of BioBased Building Blocks and Chemicals 229 Malgorzata Kaisler, Lambertus A.M. van den Broek, and Carmen G. Boeriu
9.1 Introduction 230
9.2 Chitin Conversion into Chitosan, Chitooligosaccharides and Monosaccharides 232
9.2.1 Chitosan Production 232
9.2.2 Production of Chitooligosaccharides 234
9.2.3 Production of GlcNAc and GlcN from Chitin 235
9.3 Building Blocks for Polymers from Chitin and its Derivatives 238
9.3.1 FuranBased Monomers 238
9.3.2 Amino Alcohol and Amino Acid Building Blocks 239
9.4 Outlook 239 Acknowledgement 240 References 240 10 Chemical and Enzymatic Modification of Chitosan to Produce New Functional Materials with Improved Properties 245 Carmen G. Boeriu and Lambertus A.M. van den Broek
10.1 Introduction 245
10.2 Functional Chitosan Derivatives by Chemical and Enzymatic Modification 246
10.2.1 Anionic Chitosan Derivatives 248
10.2.2 Hydroxyalkylchitosans 250
10.2.3 Quaternised and Highly Cationic Chitosan Derivatives 250
10.2.4 Hydroxyaryl Chitosan Derivatives 250
10.2.5 CarbohydrateModified Chitosan 251
10.3 Graft CoPolymers of Chitosan 251
10.4 CrossLinked Chitosan and Chitosan Polymer Networks 254
10.5 Outlook 254 References 255 11 ChitosanBased Drug Delivery Systems 259 Cristian Peptu, Andra Cristina Humelnicu, Razvan Rotaru, Maria Emiliana Fortuna, Xenia Patras, Mirela Teodorescu, Bogdan Ionel Tamba, and Valeria Harabagiu
11.1 Introduction 260
11.2 Beneficial Effects of Chitosan 261
11.2.1 Interaction with Anionic Drugs 263
11.2.2 Mucoadhesive Properties 263
11.2.3 Transfection Activity 263
11.2.4 Efflux Pump Inhibitory Properties 265
11.2.5 PermeationEnhancing Properties 265
11.3 Chitosan--an Active Polymer for Bypassing Biological Barriers 265
11.3.1 Skin Barrier 266
11.3.2 Mucosa Barrier 267
11.3.3 Ophthalmic Barrier 269
11.3.4 Blood-Brain Barrier 270