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Foreword xv Preface xxi Acknowledgments xxiii
Chapter 1 Introduction to Data-Driven Concepts 1 Introduction 2 Current Approaches 2 Is There a Crisis in Geophysical and Petrophysical Analysis? 3 Applying an Analytical Approach 4 What Are Analytics and Data Science? 5 Meanwhile, Back in the Oil Industry 8 How Do I Do Analytics and Data Science? 10 What Are the Constituent Parts of an Upstream Data Science Team? 13 A Data-Driven Study Timeline 15 What Is Data Engineering? 18 A Workflow for Getting Started 19 Is It Induction or Deduction? 30 References 32
Chapter 2 Data-Driven Analytical Methods Used in E&P 34 Introduction 35 Spatial Datasets 36 Temporal Datasets 37 Soft Computing Techniques 39 Data Mining Nomenclature 40 Decision Trees 43 Rules-Based Methods 44 Regression 45 Classification Tasks 45 Ensemble Methodology 48 Partial Least Squares 50 Traditional Neural Networks: The Details 51 Simple Neural Networks 54 Random Forests 59 Gradient Boosting 60 Gradient Descent 60 Factorized Machine Learning 62 Evolutionary Computing and Genetic Algorithms 62 Artificial Intelligence: Machine and Deep Learning 64 References 65
Chapter 3 Advanced Geophysical and Petrophysical Methodologies 68 Introduction 69 Advanced Geophysical Methodologies 69 How Many Clusters? 70 Case Study: North Sea Mature Reservoir Synopsis 72 Case Study: Working with Passive Seismic Data 74 Advanced Petrophysical Methodologies 78 Well Logging and Petrophysical Data Types 78 Data Collection and Data Quality 82 What Does Well Logging Data Tell Us? 84 Stratigraphic Information 86 Integration with Stratigraphic Data 87 Extracting Useful Information from Well Reports 89 Integration with Other Well Information 90 Integration with Other Technical Domains at the Well Level 90 Fundamental Insights 92 Feature Engineering in Well Logs 95 Toward Machine Learning 98 Use Cases 98 Concluding Remarks 99 References 99
Chapter 4 Continuous Monitoring 102 Introduction 103 Continuous Monitoring in the Reservoir 104 Machine Learning Techniques for Temporal Data 105 Spatiotemporal Perspectives 106 Time Series Analysis 107 Advanced Time Series Prediction 108 Production Gap Analysis 112 Digital Signal Processing Theory 117 Hydraulic Fracture Monitoring and Mapping 117 Completions Evaluation 118 Reservoir Monitoring: Real-Time Data Quality 119 Distributed Acoustic Sensing 122 Distributed Temperature Sensing 123 Case Study: Time Series to Optimize Hydraulic Fracture Strategy 129 Reservoir Characterization and Tukey Diagrams 131 References 138
Chapter 5 Seismic Reservoir Characterization 140 Introduction 141 Seismic Reservoir Characterization: Key Parameters 141 Principal Component Analysis 146 Self-Organizing Maps 146 Modular Artificial Neural Networks 147 Wavelet Analysis 148 Wavelet Scalograms 157 Spectral Decomposition 159 First Arrivals 160 Noise Suppression 161 References 171
Chapter 6 Seismic Attribute Analysis 174 Introduction 175 Types of Seismic Attributes 176 Seismic Attribute Workflows 180 SEMMA Process 181 Seismic Facies Classification 183 Seismic Facies Dataset 188 Seismic Facies Study: Preprocessing 189 Hierarchical Clustering 190 k-means Clustering 193 Self-Organizing Maps (SOMs) 194 Normal Mixtures 195 Latent Class Analysis 196 Principal Component Analysis (PCA) 198 Statistical Assessment 200 References 204
Chapter 7 Geostatistics: Integrating Seismic and Petrophysical Data 206 Introduction 207 Data Description 208 Interpretation 210 Estimation 210 The Covariance and the Variogram 211 Case Study: Spatially Predicted Model of Anisotropic Permeability 214 What Is Anisotropy? 214 Analysis with Surface Trend Removal 215 Kriging and Co-kriging 224 Geostatistical Inversion 229 Geophysical Attribute: Acoustic Impedance 230 Petrophysical Properties: Density and Lithology 230 Knowledge Synthesis: Bayesian Maximum Entropy (BME) 231 References 237
Chapter 8 Artificial Intelligence: Machine and Deep Learning 240 Introduction 241 Data Management 243 Machine Learning Methodologies 243 Supervised Learning 244 Unsupervised Learning 245 Semi-Supervised Learning 245 Deep Learning Techniques 247 Semi-Supervised Learning 249 Supervised Learning 250 Unsupervised Learning 250 Deep Neural Network Architectures 251 Deep Forward Neural Network 251 Convolutional Deep Neural Network 253 Recurrent Deep Neural Network 260 Stacked Denoising Autoencoder 262 Seismic Feature Identification Workflow 268 Efficient Pattern Recognition Approach 268 Methods and Technologies: Decomposing Images into Patches 270 Representing Patches with a Dictionary 271 Stacked Autoencoder 272 References 274
Chapter 9 Case Studies: Deep Learning in E&P 276 Introduction 277 Reservoir Characterization 277 Case Study: Seismic Profile Analysis 280 Supervised and Unsupervised Experiments 280 Unsupervised Results 282 Case Study: Estimated Ultimate Recovery 288 Deep Learning for Time Series Modeling 289 Scaling Issues with Large Datasets 292 Conclusions 292 Case Study: Deep Learning Applied to Well Data 293 Introduction 293 Restricted Boltzmann Machines 294 Mathematics 297 Case Study: Geophysical Feature Extraction: Deep Neural Networks 298 CDNN Layer Development 299 Case Study: Well Log Data-Driven Evaluation for Petrophysical Insights 302 Case Study: Functional Data Analysis in Reservoir Management 306 References 312 Glossary 314 About the Authors 320 Index 323